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Acids - pH Values

pH is a measure of the activity of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution and, therefore, its acidity or alkalinity.



Acidity of some common acids are indicated in the table below :

Acid
Normality
pH
Acetic
N
2.4
Acetic
0.1 N
2.9
Acetic
0.01 N
3.4
Alum
0.1 N
3.2
Arsenious
saturated
5.0
Benzoic
0.1 N
3.0
Boric
0.1 N
5.2
Carbonic
saturated
3.8
Citric
0.1 N
2.2
Formic
0.1 N
2.3
Hydrochloric
N
0.1
Hydrochloric
0.1 N
1.1
Hydrochloric
0.01 N
2.0
Hydrocyanic
0.1 N
5.1
Hydrogen sulfide
0.1 N
4.1
Lactic
0.1 N
2.4
Lemon Juice

2
Malic
0.1 N
2.2
Nitric
0.1N
1.0
Orthophosphoric
0.1 N
1.5
Oxalic
0.1 N
1.3
Salicylic
saturated
2.4
Succinic
0.1N
2.7
Sulfuric
N
0.3
Sulfuric
0.1 N
1.2
Sulfuric
0.01 N
2.1
Sulfurous
0.1 N
1.5
Stomach Acid

1
Tartaric
0.1 N
2.2
Trichloracetic
0.1N
1.2
Vinegar

3

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Archimedes Principle

A body immersed in a liquid


Archimedes' principle states that:

"If a solid body floats or is submerged in a liquid, the liquid excerts an upward thrust force on the body equal to the gravitational force on the liquid displaced by the body."

It can be expressed as

W = V γ

  = V ρ g     (1)

where :

W = weight (N)

V = volume of the body below the surface of the liquid (m3)

γ   = specific weight (weight per unit volume) (N/m3)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

Cavitations Number

Cavitations Number
An introduction to and a definition of the Cavitations Number

The Cavitations Number or Cavitation Parameter is a "special edition" of the dimensionless Euler Number.

The Euler Number An introduction to and a definition of the Euler Number
The Cavitations Number is useful analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems where cavitations may occur.

The Cavitations Number can be expressed as

σ = (pr - pv) / (1/2 ρ v2)         (1)

where :

σ = Cavitations number

pr = reference pressure (Pa)

pv = vapor pressure of the fluid (Pa)

ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)

v = velocity of fluid (m/s)

To prevent cavitation :
  • avoid low pressure - pressurize supply tanks if necessary
  • reduce fluid temperature
  • use larger suction pipe diameters - reduce minor losses
  • use cavitation resistant materials or coatings
  • small amounts of air supplied to the suction system may reduce the amount of cavitation damage
  • keep available NPSH well above required NPSH

Cavitation - an Introduction

Cavitation may occur in fluid flow systems where the local static pressure is below the vapor pressure



Cavitation is a common problem in pumps and control valves - Causing serious wear and tear and damage. Under the wrong conditions, cavitation Reduces the components life time dramatically.

What is Cavitation?
Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature.

According to the Bernoulli Equation this may Happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump impeller.

The vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the vapor almost immediately collapses after evaporation when the velocity is Decreased and Increased pressure.

Avoiding Cavitation
Cavitation can in general be avoided by

increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature
This can be done by:

reengineering components initiating high speed low velocities and static pressures
increasing the total or local static pressure in the system
reducing the temperature of the fluid
Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed ​​Velocity and Low Static Pressure
Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the actual rough conditions.

conditions as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by the Multi Stage Control Valves
challenging pumping conditions - with fluid Temperatures close to the vaporization temperature - can be handled with   special pumps - after working principles of centrifugal pumps than

Increasing the total or Local Pressure in the System
By increasing the total or local pressure in the system the distance between the static pressure and the pressure is Increased vaporization and vaporization and cavitation can be avoided.

The ratio between the static pressure and the vaporization pressure - an indication of the possibility of vaporization, is Often Expressed by the Cavitation Number.

Unfortunately it may not always be possible to increase is due to the total static pressure systems Classifications or other limitations. Local static pressure in components may be Increased by lowering the component in the system. Control valves and pumps in general should be positioned in the and lowest part of the systems to maximize static head.

This is a common solution for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot condensate (water close to 100 ° C) from condensate receivers.

Reducing the Temperature of the Fluid
The vaporization pressure of fluid temperature depends. Vapor pressure of Water, our most common fluid, is Indicated below  :

Temperature ( ° C)
Vapor Pressure (kN / m 2 )
0
0.6
5
0.9
10
1.2
15
1.7
20
2.3
25
3.2
30
4.3
35
5.6
40
7.7
45
9.6
50
12.5
55
15.7
60
20
65
25
70
32.1
75
38.6
80
47.5
85
57.8
90
70
95
84.5
100
101.33

Note ! - The possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the water temperature.
Cavitation can also be avoided by locating components to the coldest part of a system. It is common to locate pumps in heating systems in the "cold" return lines.
This is the same for control valves. If it is possible control valves should be located on the cold sides of the heat exchangers.

DECIBEL

Decibel is a logarithmic unit used to describe the ratio of the signal level - power, sound pressure, voltage, intensity, etc.



Most signal systems - as sound power or sound intensity, human speech, sonar, microwaves, radio signals and fiber optics - can be described by

  • transmitting power
  • transmission path loss
  • receiver sensitivity
Transmitting power, path loss and receiver sensitivity are absolute power values - Watts in the SI system.

The Definition of Decibel
Decibel is a logarithmic unit used to describe the ratio of the signal level - power, sound pressure, voltage or intensity or several other things.

The decibel can be expressed as:

decibel = 10 log(P / Pref )         (1)

where :

P = signal power (W)

Pref = reference power (W)

A decibel is one-tenth of a Bel - named after Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone.

Note! Doubling the signal level increases the decibel with 3 dB (10 log (2)).

If we know the decibel value and the reference level, the absolute level can be calculated by transforming (1) to:

P = Pref 10(decibel / 10)         (2)

Example - Sound Intensity and Decibel

The difference in sound intensity of 10-8 watts/m2 and 10-4 watts/m2 (10,000 units) can be calculated in decibels as

ΔLI = 10 log( (10-4 watts/m2) / (10-12 watts/m2) ) - 10 log( ( 10-8 watts/m2) / ( 10-12 watts/m2) )

    = 40 dB

Increasing the sound intensity by a factor of :
  • 10 raises its level by 10 dB
  • 100 raises its level by 20 dB
  • 1,000 raises its level by 30 dB
  • 10,000 raises its level by 40 dB and so on

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